HISTORY AND PRINCIPLES

The power of movement in group and individual activities has been known to be essential for people of all abilities and fitness levels. Participating in physical activities at a level that allows success for the individual gives people, including those identified with disabilities, the chance to be free of limitations by learning to rise above challenges. It also helps erase stereotypes as people's awareness and attitudes change. Incorporating adventure-based and experiential activities in fitness and educational programs promotes life-long physical wellness and inclusion.

The lure of adventure is not hard to identify. Consider the hiker who says: "It was to prove to myself and maybe others that I can do something huge against odds… The truth is, the glory is in the doing, not in the finishing" (Mueser, 1998, p.7). Physical and group activities in Adventure Education can be seen as metaphors for situations that the individual with a disability may face in their daily lives. It teaches the value of positive attitudes, and emphasizes ability versus inability or disability. Adventure Education is often termed "Experiential Education," the concept of which empowers participants to develop creative potential, encourages forms of expression, and offers a wide range of "hands-on" activities (Folsom and Munson, 2006).

Many public schools are attempting to design physical education programs that include principles and elements of Adventure Education. Adventure Education has gained considerable momentum over the past 25-30 years (Winnick, 2005). The challenges can be great as public schools attempt to gather support and implement new programming, while also meeting the ever-changing national and state-level educational standards, local funding issues, and facility and liability issues.

Adventure or experiential programming in PE can be designed to allow all students to participate safely at their level of comfort and ability. It can successfully include those identified with physical, developmental, emotional, and cognitive disabilities. Physical educators must learn how to implement adaptations for students with disabilities that are safe and effective, thus adding another dimension of challenge. By doing so the core values of Adventure Education are modeled: trust-building, inclusion, problem-solving, teamwork, and rising above barriers for all involved. The success of dealing with curriculum design, safety, inclusion, and funding issues takes creativity, collaboration, and cooperation among staff and administrators in new program development at public schools.

Although Adventure Education has been in existence for many years, programming for people who have disabilities is fairly new (Sugarman, 1988). The term "disability" implies a limitation of function by an individual with impairment in comparison to age-related peers. These disabilities may fall under the emotional, cognitive, or developmental domains, and include the conditions of Down syndrome, multiple disabilities, autism, traumatic brain injury, speech/language impairment, emotional disability, blindness, deafness, learning disability, and other health impairment (including ADHD). Possible reasons cited for excluding people with disabilities from Adventure Education activities include "they can't do that, they might get hurt; it's too hard," and/or "they wouldn't like it anyway" (Dillenschneider, 1983, pg. 8).

There can be a paradox between the desire to protect people with disabilities, and allowing the possible risk that comes when making their own decisions, when doing difficult tasks, or when being independent (Dickinson, 1981; Dillenschneider, 1983). So often people are perceived and judged on their physical limitations, versus the nature of what they can do and the spirit they contain. In Adventure Education, there are often concerns from both instructors and participants of how to keep the participants safe, and how to communicate with and integrate someone with physical, emotional, or learning limitations. The leadership and attitude of the instructor will often set the pace for the participants in terms of how they will perceive and include a participant with a disability.

The area of Adventure Physical Education (Adventure PE) is large. It can include anything from trust and team-building games to ropes course activities (high ropes and low ropes), and outdoor pursuits such as cycling, hiking, mountaineering, climbing, kayaking, fly-fishing, or snowshoeing. According to Sugarman (1988), the core values of Adventure Education (which are the building blocks of Adventure PE programs) include:

• activities tend to be non-competitive
• successful completion of a specifically designed sequence of activities results in a feeling of accomplishment by participants
• activities promote cooperation and trust among participants
• communication occurs among group members to achieve goals
• activities can be implemented at the level of the participant
• participants have fun while improving flexibility, strength, coordination, and endurance
• activities require cooperation with nature which leads to a greater respect and appreciation of the natural environment

One of the best-known programs in Adventure Education is Project Adventure, initiated by R. Lentz in 1971 (Winnick, 2005). Headquartered in Beverly, Massachusetts, Project Adventure employs a series of activities that encourage the development of individual and group trust, cooperation, confidence, courage, independence, and competence (Winnick). The themes are addressed through cooperative games, rope course elements, high ropes courses, initiative problems, and trust-building activities. Concepts of a "Full Value Contract" and "Challenge by Choice" are incorporated into their curriculum. The "Full Value Contract" implies that everyone must contribute to their best effort in order for each participant, and the entire group, to achieve the maximum benefit. The contract may be written or oral, and is designed by the participants and facilitators. The "Challenge by Choice" concept is an important one. It means that participants choose their own level of challenge and involvement in each activity - guided by their commitment to the "Full Value Contract." Zones of comfort or challenge level include: the comfort zone, learning zone, and panic zone (Folsom and Munson, 2006).

Adventure Education can be therapeutic to an individual in a number of ways. It is a method that can produce benefits in the affective, cognitive, and psychomotor domains (Cassidy, 1982; Dillenschneider, 1983). It allows for development of self-concept, social attitudes and perceptions, shared responsibility for the safety and well-being of others in the group, and for taking risks and facing challenges. For students in special education, or with special needs, these activities can foster growth in confidence and self-esteem, and break barriers of stereotypes and discrimination. They learn, like other participants, how to make choices, take turns, follow directions, and share and perform as a team, as well as receiving the physiological benefits of healthy activity (Ray, 2002).

Adaptations in Adventure PE programs are often needed to ensure the success of individuals with disabilities. "Adaptations" are normal strategies we all create to improve our participation in activities of our daily lives (2002). Adaptations in schools are done across curriculum and throughout facilities. Adapted PE involves "adapting, modifying, and changing" a physical activity so it is as appropriate for the person with a disability as it is for an able-bodied peer. It is important to make sure that the adaptations considered and designed for an activity are, in fact, relevant for a particular participant (2002). The ultimate goal is to help reduce these adaptations, and achieve as much individual success and independence as is possible.

Adaptations in PE, or in Adventure PE programming, can be as simple as slowing down the activity pace, lengthening the time a task is completed, providing verbal and visual demonstrations of the activity, having a peer partner assist, modifying body positions, simplifying steps, using a ramp, removing obstacles and potential distractions, using stations to increase participation time, decreasing the distance of a course or activity, and signing gestures. Determining appropriate adaptations to a curriculum is a process of creativity and collaboration between instructional support (special education) and regular education teachers. It involves assessing the situation at hand to determine what modifications or accommodations may be needed to allow the individual to be successful and to achieve their individual goals and the learning goals of the organization.

It is important to understand the need for allowing individuals with disabilities to participate in physical activity educational programming in context with the Education for All Handicapped Children Act signed into law in 1975. This law has been reauthorized a number of times and is referred to as the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). This legislation provides free and appropriate education, including physical education, for all children who have been identified as having a disability, from birth to 21 years of age (Tripp, 2004). Least restrictive environment (LRE) is a crucial piece of this law. It encourages the participation of children with disabilities in general curriculum and regular education classroom environments, and the development of an Individualized Education Program (IEP) for each student to be reviewed and revised each year. In order to be in compliance with this law, PE programs in public schools must accommodate and modify curriculum to ensure inclusion of all students, with or without disabilities.

CAPE ELIZABETH HIGH SCHOOL/PE/ROPES COURSE PROFILE

Cape Elizabeth is a rural coastal town in southeastern Maine five miles south of Portland. The town is known for its beautiful and rugged coastline and its local and state park facilities. The town has a rich history of being a farming and fishing community, and has kept a strong link between its past and present. It is considered to be a "middle" to "upper-middle" class community, with a population of people choosing to live in the community for its commitment to, and reputation of, excellence in education.

Cape Elizabeth High School is a public four-year comprehensive high school with approximately 600 students. The average class size is 22 students. There are 63 professional staff members. Cape Elizabeth's per pupil expenditure for 2002-2003 was $7,292. This past year the district completed a 7 million dollar renovation project for the high school. The high school offers college preparatory, vocational, and special education programs for all students. Seven percent of Cape Elizabeth High School's population is enrolled in special education courses for credit. Two percent participate in the Life Skills program, a special educational program designed for students with developmental disabilities (Mylroie, 2007).

PE facilities at the high school include a large gymnasium and a six-lane, 25 yard pool. Tennis courts, baseball, softball, and multi-purpose fields, and a six-lane track surround a soccer field. There are two full-time physical education teachers teaching health and PE classes including two one-semester courses of Adventure PE programming for seniors. The gym facilities include a rock-climbing wall and high ropes course.

An interview with the head of the PE Department at Cape Elizabeth High School, Scott Shea, revealed the Rock Gym was implemented over ten years ago, and funded through the local town budget and grants. It cost approximately $12,000 to install. Scott Shea installed many of the elements. Elements include the climbing wall, firecracker ladder, cargo net, dangling duo, rope tunnel, fidget ladder, flying squirrel, and rappelling station. Project Adventure, a private adventure education and inspection company based in Massachusetts, inspects the course once a year to meet required safety regulations. Scott Shea emphasized that it took effort and persuasion to convince the local school board to approve and support the ropes course. Issues of liability, safety practices, expenses, upkeep, and teacher certifications in ropes challenge courses were addressed.

STUDENT PROFILE

Craig is an 18-year-old senior at Cape Elizabeth High School who participates in the Life Skills program. As a student identified with multiple disabilities, he receives special education direct instruction services, as well as support services with speech/language, occupational, and physical therapy. He uses a wheel chair and a walker due to weak lower leg strength, and being non-verbal he utilizes a voice activation system in addition to individual sign gestures and expressions to communicate. Craig is mainstreamed into PE class. His IEP calls for modifications and accommodations to his program, and has specific goals and objectives. His regular education teachers are made aware of the IEP goals, and have a copy of the modification/accommodations that need to be in place. Craig has a one-on-one educational technician who supports him with mobility, self-care, and instruction.

Craig has been a participant in a regular education PE class for the last three years. Last year Craig was observed during a climbing unit that emphasized principles of Adventure Education. Craig is an enthusiastic student with limited communication (expressive language) ability, delayed gross and fine motor skill, a need for physical activity to sustain health and fitness level, and a strong desire for integration with his peers. He utilizes a walker and wheelchair for mobility, and has a need to be aware of safe practices with movement and be aware of the environment he is in. He is fearless in nature, and expresses interest in many of the PE units.

THE CLIMBING UNIT

The climbing unit is typically taught during the winter months. Thus, students are generally already acquainted with one another. This school year it was introduced in December, 2007 and implemented throughout January, 2008. The unit is typically introduced by the instructor, including basic safety instruction and demonstrations necessary for climbing (Shea, 2007). This instruction includes the proper use and adjustment of harnesses, the purpose and use of carabiners, demonstration of various rope knots, spotting and supporting techniques, climbing commands, and safety checks.

Each student has to pass an assessment of basic safety skills in order to move on to climbing. Craig, with the support of his educational technician, will pick out a safety harness, stand up from his walker or wheelchair, and step into and secure his harness. He will be expected to demonstrate the proper use and safety position of a carabiner, including how to lock and unlock it. Modifications to the safety aspect of the unit will include ed tech assistance with the safety equipment, use of yes or no questions, verbal and visual prompts, modeling task, extra time, breaking down tasks into manageable steps, repetition of tasks to maximize retention, assistance with knot tying and belaying, and giving choices with activities. The assessment of Craig's understanding of the safety unit is similar to the other students, using visual demonstration and verbal questioning, but in this case often in the form of "yes" or "no" questions or by pointing to an item.

Communication is key in any successful and safe adventure/climbing activity. This is a challenging area for Craig because he is non-verbal. Teachers needed to develop hand sign gestures and voice activation words that Craig uses with his Dynovox assistive technology to express comfort level and commands during climbing. Some of the commands include a "thumbs-up" which indicates "ready to climb," lifting his hand above his head and pointing up to the ceiling which means he is "absolutely ready to climb," and pointing his finger down to the students who are billeting when he wants to "come down or descend." Craig will also serve as an anchor by holding down the individual belaying. He will sit in his wheelchair for stability and balance, and be asked to pay attention to the individual climbing.

The amount of assistance Craig needs will depend on the element he is climbing. On the gym rock wall he will be lifted up to assist him with initial movement. There will be an extra student and precaution taken in belaying as his weight is supported. Craig's ability to grip with his hands is strong. He has made it half way up the climbing wall in previous years. According to Scott Shea, on one occasion he was pulled all the way up to the top. He thoroughly enjoys the freedom of movement he experiences through this adventure activity.

The unit assessment for Craig will consist of hands-on (verses a written test), and journal writing with modifications. He has to demonstrate how to tie a figure-8 knot, how to put the harness on, how to lock and unlock the carabiner, how to anchor, and how to signal climbing commands. He will be evaluated on his knowledge and communication and participation as a team-member and individual climber. Craig's weakest area in the past has been supporting other students, as a person belaying and as an anchor, in terms of being aware and reacting appropriately and quickly to their climbing and commands. Craig seems to have less awareness of the physical needs and positions of others around him. In contrast to that, he is very sensitive and aware of the emotional responses and moods of others around him, often expressing concern through gesture or pointing. Craig, instead of journal writing during the unit, will be asked to choose a picture that represents how he felt for the day in relation to climbing. There is a strong reflection piece in the assessment of adventure-based activities emphasizing problem-solving and team-work skills, key elements of adventure education.

CONCLUSION

Adventure and Experiential Education encourage all of its participants to reach and stretch beyond their abilities. It involves team-work, communication, problem-solving, trust-building, and goal-setting. These concepts are introduced and developed in Project Adventure curriculum, "The Full Value Contract," and "Challenge by Choice." Any individual can benefit from developing these skills through the process of physical activity and through Adventure Education curriculum. More and more public schools are incorporating adventure activities and ropes courses within their PE curriculum. In particular, individuals with disabilities can benefit from being part of Adventure Education and learning how to overcome challenges. Students with disabilities at public schools should be encouraged and allowed to participate in Adventure Education activities within the regular PE curriculum. With appropriate accommodations and adaptations all students will be able to participate and obtain a better understanding of their abilities, a sense of facing challenges successfully, and a feeling of being a valuable member of a team.

References
Cassidy, A.E (1982). Outdoor Education for the Handicapped Project: An Overview. (ERIC Document) ERIC ED 223, 401.

Dillenschneider, C.A. (1983). Wilderness Adventure Programming for the Mentally Retarded: a Rationale and Therapeutic Basis for Program Development. ERIC ED 238, 216.

Folsom, J. and Munson, K. (2006). An Overview of the Adventure-Based Experiential Learning Process. St. Josephs College.

Mueser, Roland. (1998). Long-Distance Hiking: Lessons from the Appalachian Trail. Ragged Mountain Press, Camden, Maine, 7.

Mylroie, Elizabeth. (November, 2007). Personal Interview. Cape Elizabeth High School.

Ray, Tip. (Spring, 2002). Principles for Adapting Activities in Recreation Programs and Settings. National Center on Accessibility.
Website: http://www.ncaonline.org/index.php?q=node/658

Riviere, Bill. (1981). The L.L. Bean Guide to the Outdoors. Random House, New York.

Shea, Scott. (November, 2007). Personal Interview. Cape Elizabeth High School.

Sugarman, Deborah. (1988). Adventure Education for People Who Have Disabilities: A Critical Review.
Website: http://www.iub.edu/~outdoor/bponline/bp1988/bp88suga.doc

Tripp, April. (2004). A Position Statement on Including Students with Disabilities in Physical Education. Adapted Physical Activity Council of the American Association for Active Lifestyles and Fitness. Reston, VA.
Website: http://www.aahperd.org/aaalf/pdf_files/pos_papers/inclusion_position.pdf

Winnick, Joseph. (2005) Adapted Physical Education and Sport. 4th ed. Human Kinetics. Champaign, Illinois

Adventure PE author- Elaine Brassard is currently teaching adapted physical activity in Cape Elizabeth, Maine. She enrolled in one of Chris Stopka's graduate Adapted Physical Activity classes during the fall of 2007.

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