FUTURE SPORT, EXERCISE AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION PROFESSIONALS' PERCEPTIONS OF THE PHYSICAL SELF OF OBESE CHILDREN
By Derek M. Peters, and Ruan J.A. Jones

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Kinesiology: International Journal of Fundamental and Applied Kinesiology (2010) 42(1): 36-43. The journal abstract and full length article can be downloaded at: Hrcak Portal of scientific journals of Croatia.

Procedure
The survey was distributed to approximately 300 students studying sports-related, sport science, and physical education programmes in higher education in England. Data from the 167 completed and returned surveys (participation rate of approximately 56%) were entered into the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version 14.

Body mass index was calculated from the participant’s self-reported height and weight (kg .m2) and participants were categorized as underweight (BMI<20), normal weight (BMI 20-24.99), overweight (BMI 25-29.99) or obese (BMI>30).

The responses to each item of the adapted CY-PSPP were coded as 1 for the really true option that identified lowest relative perception compared to their perception of normal-weight kids, 2 for the sort of true option that identified a lower relative perception compared to their perception of normal-weight kids, 3 for the sort of true option that identified a higher relative perception compared to their perception of normal-weight kids and 4 for the really true option that identified the highest relative perception compared to their perception of normal-weight kids.

The mean for each subscale was then calculated by adding together the responses to the six items that made up the subscale and dividing this by 6. Only a mean score for the subscale of 2.5 would therefore identify equivocal perception of fat compared to normal-weight kids.

Data analysis
Reliability of the six subscales of the adapted CY-PSPP was investigated using Cronbach’s alpha coefficients with acceptable internal consistency identified as a>=.7 (Ntoumanis, 2001).

One sample t-tests, which identify if the mean of a subscale is significantly different from a fixed value were used to identify whether the subscale means achieved were significantly different to 2.5 (the subscale mean value that would suggest an equivocal perception of fat versus normal-weight kids). Significant difference with a mean value above 2.5 would, therefore, indicate a positive bias for the perception of fat kids compared to normal-weight kids, i.e., that the perceptions towards the fat kids in the subscale were more favorable than those held towards the normal weight kids. Significant difference with a mean value less than 2.5 would indicate a negative bias for the perception of fat kids compared with normal-weight kids, i.e., that the perceptions held towards the fat kids in the subscale were less favorable than those held towards the normal-weight kids. Also calculated were effect size (eta2), 95% confidence intervals and the percentage of respondents who had a mean score lower than 2.5 for each subscale.

Group differences using the demographic variables as grouping variables were investigated for each subscale using independent sample t-tests for sex differences (male, female), and one-way ANOVA for year of study (first, second, third, fourth year) and BMI category (underweight, normal weight, overweight, obese) differences.

Results
Cronbach’s alpha for the subscales were calculated as CONDITION a=.85; BODY a=.74; PSW a=.83; SPORT a=.78; GSE a=.80 and STRENGTH a=.86 and the internal reliability of all of the subscales of the adapted CY-PSPP was therefore deemed to be good. Mean (±SD) for each subscale, results of one-sample t-tests (t, df, p), mean difference, effect size - eta2 (if significant difference is apparent), 95% lower and upper confidence intervals and the percentage of respondents with a subscale mean score below the equivocal score of 2.5 are shown in Table 1.

It is evident from Table 1 that subscale means for all except the STRENGTH subscale were significantly lower than the equivocal perception value of 2.5, indicating the presence of significant anti-fat perceptions in the CONDITION, BODY, PSW, SPORT and GSE subscales. The majority of participants also had mean subscale scores lower than 2.5 for each of these five subscales. Only the STRENGTH subscale showed no significant anti-fat bias and a greater percentage of participants having mean scores above the 2.5 value (49%) than below
(41%).

Results of t-test and ANOVA analyses (with alpha set at p<.05), identified that no significant subscale differences were present between the groups created from each of the demographic variables, i.e., there were no significant sex differences, year group differences or BMI category differences apparent for any of the subscales (the results of these analyses are therefore not presented). This identified that the perceptions held towards fat kids compared to normal-weight kids were relatively universal across the sample regardless of sex, year of study and participant BMI category.

Discussion and conclusions
These data support previous findings of anti-fat bias in samples of practising health professionals, exercise science and PE students and PE teachers in the USA and New Zealand. As an extension to the literature, the data provides direct evidence that anti-fat bias is evident in relation to fat children, with perceptions of the physical self of fat children held by the participants being significantly lower for body image, sport competence, physical condition, physical self-worth and global self-esteem (Table 1 above).

Only perception of the strength of fat children was found to be equivocal to the strength perception of normal-weight children, a feature which reflects the research of Greenleaf and Weiller (2005) who found the smallest differential between expectancies of overweight and normal weight youth to be in relation to their strength self-description items. The perception of equivocal strength and, indeed, the finding that a larger percentage of participants (49%) identified fat children as greater in the strength subscale than normal-weight children (41% less) could be suggested as either causing, or potentially being resultant from, obese children being more comfortable performing, being encouraged towards, or even being targeted to participate in, activities in sport, exercise and physical activity settings that require strength rather than activities that require endurance or physical conditioning.

None of the demographic variables were found to significantly moderate the anti-fat perceptions held, and there was no relationship found between age and subscale means (although this may stem from the relatively homogenous age of the sample). As such, it would appear that gender, current weight status, and year of study had no significant impact upon the level of anti-fat bias with groups of students on the sport, exercise and physical education courses holding similar negative perceptions of fat children when compared with their normal-weight peers. 

Further research is necessary to establish whether these data are unique to future sport, exercise, and PE professionals, and to establish if these perceptions become even more negative towards obese children as students progress through potentially body-oriented educational programmes. Indeed, the impact of experience and 'exposure' to the rising levels of childhood obesity should be explored. This may be possible through sampling of professionals with a far greater range of years of experience gained while childhood obesity levels have been rising. Indeed, physical education teachers may present the most important population to examine as they constitute the only profession required to deliver quality physical activity opportunities to ALL children of school age and who arguably have had the most exposure to the rising levels of childhood obesity. 

Appreciation of the findings from the current study alongside previous studies (Schwartz, et al., 2003; Wadden, et al., 2000) has serious implications for the possible impact of negative perceptions of obese children in sport, exercise and physical education settings. These implications may be heightened still further if obese children are as perceptive as obese women in sensing such lack of understanding in those purported to be supporting them. 

International comparative research is also required to investigate potential international differences in perceptions and the underlying causation of such perceptions in different national contexts that may exist in many facets of sport, exercise, and physical education training and philosophy. 

Following identification of the anti-fat perceptions held towards fat children by healthcare, sport, exercise and physical education trainees and professionals, the issue remains whether such perceptions actually do manifest into negative behaviours towards obese children in settings designed to promote and inculcate sport, exercise, and physical activity enjoyment and participation. Theory and previous research has identified the ability of negative implicit attitudes to predict future prejudicial behaviours towards the target group.

The identification of negative perceptions of the physical self of obese children, the lower expectations and anticipation of lower physical ability held by sport, exercise, and physical education specialists toward obese children and adolescents is therefore alarming. The potential for these to develop into discriminatory, damaging behaviours toward obese children and adolescents is not beyond question. Investigation of the ramifications that these perceptions and subsequent negative behaviours may have upon the obese child's physical and psychological health and likelihood of participating in sport, exercise, and physical activity in the near and distant future is, therefore, of paramount importance. 

In synergizing the findings from this and other previous studies into anti-fat attitudes in such physical ability focused specialists, the suggestion by Jalongo (1999) that obesity should be considered a 'diversity' issue would seem to warrant serious consideration in such settings. The current findings therefore add further support to calls from previous authors for the development of obesity awareness programmes and materials to attempt to change the anti-fat bias held by frontline healthcare, sport, exercise and physical education professionals (Gately 2007; Greenleaf & Weiller 2005; O'Brien, et al., 2007). Such intervention tools for use in sport, exercise and physical education environments would need to develop from appreciation of not only the 'experiences of obesity' in relation to health and well-being, but specifically the experiences of obesity in direct relation to sport, exercise and physical education settings.

In addition, the findings from the current study explicitly identify that intervention programmes are necessary for those who deal specifically with children and adolescents. The inclusion of training, modules and discourse on obesity appreciation issues within the initial training and continuing professional development of sport, exercise and physical education professionals may be of paramount importance not only for enhancing the immediate engagement of overweight and obese children and adolescents in physical activity, exercise and sport and their enjoyment of the experience, but also for increasing the likelihood of overweight and obese children and adolescents adopting a physically active lifestyle into adulthood. 

References to this article.

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